Two traditions seem to have developed alongside each other – one in northern Peru and Ecuador, and another in the Altiplano region of southern Peru, Bolivia and Chile. There is evidence for smelting of copper sulphide in the Altiplano region around the Early horizon. Evidence for this comes from copper slag recovered at several sites,[11] with the ore itself possibly coming from the south Chilean-Bolivian border. Near Puma Punku, Bolivia, and at three additional sites in Peru and Bolivia, portable smelting kilns were used to cast I-shaped "cramps" (fasteners) in place, to join large stone blocks during construction. Their chemical analysis shows
Ellen Phiddian is a science journalist at Cosmos. She has a BSc (Honours) in chemistry and science communication, and an MSc in science communication, both from the Australian National University.
Some ancient Mayan cities have dangerously high levels of mercury pollution.
A review in Frontiers in Environmental Science has shown that this mercury pollution comes from the ancient Mayans, who appeared to use a lot of the compound at certain points in their long history.
“Mercury pollution in the environment is usually found in contemporary urban areas and industrial landscapes,” says lead author Dr Duncan Cook, an associate professor of geography at the Australian Catholic University.
“Discovering mercury buried deep in soils and sediments in ancient Maya cities is difficult to explain, until we begin to consider the archaeology of the region which tells us that the Maya were using mercury for centuries.”
The international team of researchers reviewed all the available data on mercury contamination at ten different archaeological Mayan sites.
Seven of the ten sites had mercury contamination in at least one location. These sites were mostly from the Late Classic period, during the latter half of the first millennium CE. All of the sites had been abandoned by the 10th Century.
Mercury levels range from 0.016 parts per million (ppm) at Actuncan, to 17.16 ppm at Tikal.
“The levels of total mercury found in some ancient contexts at Maya sites today are equal to or greater than modern guidelines we have in place for safe exposure limits for mercury in soils, such as the WHO’s recommended safe limit for mercury in soils for agriculture, which is 0.05 ppm,” says Cook.
“Our review shows that numerous Maya sites have total mercury levels that, if found in a playground or a building site, would be cause for concern.”
He adds that it’s “very difficult to say” how dangerous any given Maya site is, however.
“We simply do not know enough yet about the mercury that is being detected at ancient Maya sites, how it got there, and what forms it takes today in the environment, 1000 or more years after the Maya.”
The researchers suggest several reasons for the mercury contamination.
Vessels of pure liquid mercury have been found at several Mayan sites. At other sites, the bright red mineral cinnabar, which is made from mercury and sulphur, is a favoured pigment.
“The brilliant red pigment of cinnabar was an invaluable and sacred substance, but unbeknownst to them it was also deadly and its legacy persists in soils and sediments around ancient Maya sites,” says co-author Dr Nicholas Dunning, a professor at the University of Cincinnati, US.
It’s not obvious what effect this level of mercury had on the Mayan civilization, or the health and behavior of the residents of these cities.
“What we need now is new multidisciplinary research on the Maya mercury to try and get closer to answering this question,” says Cook.
“There already exists several excellent studies showing mercury present in ancient human remains from the Maya world, but we need to connect the sites with high mercury levels in buried soils and sediments to the Maya who lived there.
“This means mercury analysis on human remains from the very same sites where geoscientists have detected instances of elevated mercury still present today.”
Naturally occurring mercury is rare in the limestone around the Mayan region, suggesting it was imported.
“We conclude that even the ancient Maya, who barely used metals, caused mercury concentrations to be greatly elevated in their environment,” says Co-author Dr Tim Beach, a professor at the University of Texas at Austin, US.
Cook tells Cosmos he was one of the first researchers to identify mercury at a Maya site, back in the early 2000s – a surprising result which has “haunted him ever since”.
“My colleagues and I remain fascinated by the story of how a pre-industrial society, 1000-2000 years ago, in the tropical forests of Central America, were using mercury in such a way that its chemical signature has persisted in the environment until today,” he says.
An archaeologist has found "large quantities" of liquid mercury in a chamber beneath one of the oldest known pyramids in Mexico, The Guardian reports. Located below the Temple of the Feathered Serpent, the third largest pyramid of the ancient city Teotihuacan, the find could herald the discovery of a king's tomb or ritual chamber, scientists say. The toxic, silvery metal has been found at other archaeological sites in Mesoamerica, and, because of its shimmering nature, may have been used to represent an underworld river or lake. The tunnel where the mercury chamber was found was unsealed for the first time in 1800 years in 2003.
Archaeologists have since reported mercury artefacts (including small deposits of elemental mercury, and much more commonly, powdered cinnabar and cinnabar-painted objects) at pre-Columbian Maya settlements across a wide area of present-day Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador [see Gliozzo (2021) for a ...
Heavy users of mercury
The authors conclude that the ancient Maya frequently frequently used cinnabar and mercury-containing paints and powders for decoration. This mercury could then have leached from patios, floor areas, walls, and ceramics, and subsequently spread into the soil and water.
Did the Mayans use mercury?
Over the past few decades, evidence has built that the Maya of Central America extensively used a mercury-containing compound for decoration and art. Mercury was so prevalent that archaeological sites are still heavily contaminated today. Aug 16, 2023
Did the Aztecs use mercury?
With the new discovery at Teotihuacan, we can now say with certainty that mercury was used in ritual before 400 AD in Mexico. The technology required to produce mercury from cinnabar was entirely within the reach of people in this area as soon as they were able to fire pottery (long before 1000 BC).
Archaeology in 2023: How Technology Has Changed Our Image of Ourselves
Wondrously, Homo sapiens has harnessed its unique form of brainpower to the study of itself and found that we aren’t what we thought at all
Luis Jaime Castillo, a Peruvian archaeologist with Lima's Catholic University, flies a drone over the archaeological site of Cerro Chepen in Trujillo.Credit: Mariana Bazo / REUTERS
Don’t sneer at the navel-gazers. To be human is to be obsessed with the wonder that is we, though some exhibit their passion more baldly than others. A vast scientific effort has been devoted to shedding light on our evolution, much of it starting from the assumption of sapiens’ superiority as a species. This left mainly the question of understanding how we (We!) reached that pinnacle.
Ironically, as technological advances drove archaeology into realms formerly confined to tacky science fiction, we have learned hitherto unsuspected truths about our bodies and ourselves.
So unless one pops out of melting permafrost (please please please) we can’t be sure what Neanderthals and Denisovans looked like. They may have looked much like modern humans, only without chins, but their super-archaic-ghost lover sure didn’t. The point is, our technological breakthrough showed that we have other hominins inside of us. We are mutts, and apparently not very fussy ones, at that. Did God make a hybrid from dust?
Other residue studies have discovered, for example, that beer and mead could be traced back to the dawn of civilization around 10,000 years ago, based on traces found inside ancient pots. They’ve also revealed that early farmers gorged on dairy despite being lactose intolerant, that Israelites imported vanilla and put it in wine, and that Canaanites used opium.
Salut, Goliath
Apropos beer and mead, deliberate fermentation has a history that clearly goes way back. Last year, Israelis created the world’s first startup based on ancient microbes, having discovered yeast lineages trapped in beer (and mead) jugs for thousands of years. The startup aims to cultivate and sell these yeast cultures, extracted from pottery going back as much as 5,000 years, including from Jerusalem and the biblical city of Gath.
Yes, the yeast can be used to bake bread, too. Reportedly, the taste is “alternative,” but surely one can monkey with the recipe.
A man crawling on his knees through the tunnels of underground ancient Jerusalem to place muon detectors.Credit: Ariel David
Could you eat the same bread as King David, quaff the same muck as Samson, and share in Goliath’s whatever he was having? Sort of. The yeasts to be sold are the descendants of those very cells. They have the same lineages.
Residue analysis also helped debunk an adorable theory that ancient daggers made of malleable metals like copper and bronze were purely ceremonial. Nope, they were used to kill, whether animals or the neighbors – the technique couldn’t yet distinguish between a rabbit and a rival.
Muon, nothing to see here
Then there’s the technique that takes advantage of particles from outer space that slam into our atmosphere, creating short-lived subatomic particles called muons that race at near-light speed through our atmosphere, bodies, cats, homes, etc. They are harmless. Muonography is being used to find unknown cavities underground, recently helping to find an unknown 9-meter void inside the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. Israeli archaeologists are planting muon detectors in tunnels they know of in areas of Jerusalem where excavation can’t be done, looking for long-lost tunnels and cavities that could shed light on the city’s history.
A graphic illustrating new details, uncovered using LiDAR laser technology, of the ancient Mayan city of Calakmul, Mexico.Credit: Proyecto Arqueologico Bajo Laberinto/INAH/Handout via REUTERS
Hiding in plane sight
A whole other level from finding forgotten water cisterns is finding whole cities and civilizations using airborne sensor technology. For a jungle environment, we have LiDAR laser scanning – not unlike sonar, it produces images of “bald” terrain, showing the terrain (and buildings) without the vegetation. Satellite and drone imaging aren’t helpful in the jungle environment, but are marvelous in deserts and even farmland, revealing structures lost to time via the specific signature they create on the landscape. Recently, a whole lost civilization was identified in the Sahara. The Garamantes, who lived 2,000-1,500 years ago, were identified based on satellite imagery. By the way, Garamantes were Berbers, shown by genetic analysis in 2012 to have high rates of mutated LRRK2, a genetic cause of Parkinson’s Disease. Who else has high rates of mutant LRRK2? Ashkenazi Jews. What’s their connection? Maybe the Phoenicians. Maybe none.
Rather less dramatically, geo-radar (ground-penetrating radar) has been used to see what’s underground without digging, spectacularly seeing enormous Viking boats deep inside ancient burial mounds. It can be tedious work, though – enter autonomous geo-radar systems, for which the ground’s the limit.
I, underwater robot
Apropos robots, that’s the future of underwater archaeology, because let’s face it: water is a hostile environment to us monkeys. Europe even has a project called ARROWS, which stands for “ARchaeological RObot Systems for the world’s Seas.” And what have these robots discovered so far? Mainly that the concept works, but finds are starting to surface, as it were. These include, inevitably, more footage of the Titanic and more uniquely, an ancient shipwreck at the bottom of Norway’s biggest lake. Meanwhile, note that if a robot gets trapped in an undersea wreck, all you lose is equipment.
We must point out a few caveats, first and foremost, the GIGO (garbage in, garbage out) principle: Computers are only as good as the information we input into them. Data tends to have margins of error. Ancient human and hominin fossils remain incredibly rare, and their identification is often contested. It’s the exception when DNA can be extracted from them for analysis, not the rule – don’t be distracted by the analysis of a million-year-old mammoth. Thus, for instance, isolated remains identified as sapiens migrating early out of Africa have been found in Israel and Greece, but not everyone agrees on what they are.
Yet the advances in our knowledge are staggering. Advanced genetic analyses of latter-day southeast Asians imply that Denisovans survived there until maybe 15,000 years ago. We almost met them! Yet, for all our technological prowess, the true kings of evolution may prove to be microbes. After we destroy our petri dish with our technological toys, they’ll still be around.
The Aztecs did not initially adopt metal working, even though they had acquired metal objects from other peoples. However, as conquest gained them metal working regions, the technology started to spread. By the time of the Spanish conquest, a bronze-smelting technology had already been developed.
Did Mayans have bronze?
In the entire Maya area, only Chichén Itzá and Mayapán, both in the Northern Lowlands, have yielded more copper and copper-tin bronze artifacts
What were some of the metals used by pre-Columbian sculptures?
Instead, pre-Columbian cultures used gold, silver, copper, and bronze for objects of religious worship or that represented social status. Only the Incas began making bronze tools, but not until 1200 CE.
Did Mesoamericans have bronze?
Earlier evidence had indicated that these bronze alloys were produced exclusively in West Mexico. West Mexico was the region where metallurgy first developed in Mesoamerica, although major elements of that technology had been introduced from the metallurgies of Central and South America.
Did Mesoamericans use bronze?
They proposed that the Huasteca was second earliest region in Mesoamerica after West Mexico to produce bronze alloys artifacts during the Postclassic period. Their research positions the Huasteca as an early adopter and innovator of this technology....
Did Incas have bronze?
The Inca were well-known for their use of gold, silver, copper, bronze, and other metals for tools, weapons, and decorative ornaments
Exciting news awaits those exploring the Mexican Caribbean, as two previously restricted sections of Uxmal are set to open to the public by year-end.
This development was announced by archaeologist José Huchim Herrera, director of the Uxmal Archaeological Park, during a press conference on Yucatan’s tourism and archeology.
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This ancient city is considered one of the most significant archaeological sites in the Yucatan State and the second most visited behind Chichen Itzá.
The areas in question, ‘El Palomar’ and ‘El Parque Hundido,’ were occasionally accessible in recent years, but reaching them often required navigating through dense jungle terrain.
So, the efforts to officially unveil these sections involve careful restoration work on the structures and the clearing of paths, with the goal of seamlessly integrating these hidden gems into the official visitor’s trail.
The initiative is part of a broader program, PROMESA, which aims to restore, enhance, and promote other sites, including Kabah and Chichén Viejo, as part of the Maya Train project.
No official date has been announced yet, but meanwhile, let’s take a closer look at what this development entails and why it is expected to take Uxmal’s allure to new heights.
Uxmal’s Unique Architectural Legacy
Located about 90 km south of Mérida, Uxmal is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a prime example of the impressive architectural prowess of the Mayans.
The ancient city’s centerpiece, the Pyramid of The Magician, is peculiar in many ways.
Towering at around 35 m tall, it showcases a distinctive Puuc architectural style, featuring intricate patterns and detailed decorative elements.
Its elliptical base and steep slope are unusual for Mayan architecture, and interestingly, if you clap your hands at its base, the echo produced sounds much like the singing of a quetzal bird, sacred for the Mayans.
And that’s not all. With some of the best-preserved Mayan archaeological structures, like the Governor’s Palace and the Ceremonial Ball Court, Uxmal offers a one-of-a-kind glimpse into the past.
What The Opening Of New Sections Means For Tourists
The opening of the two new sections will help archeologists and tourists get deeper insights into the sacred beliefs and daily life of this enigmatic city, as shared by archaeologist José Huchim Herrera, director of the Uxmal archaeological site.
He stated:
“We are confident that visitors will have a different interpretation due to the unique architecture and uncommon elements present …Visitors will gain a distinct insight into the site, and the visit will require more time.”
“El Palomar” (The Dovecote), a square platform about 70 meters long and 40 meters wide, is located west of the pyramid, featuring a distinctive dovecote-like crest (hence the name) with nine stepped triangles on pillar-like niches.
On the other hand, the “Patio Hundido” (Sunken Park) is also a Puuc-style quadrangle with buildings on the southern side, some of which are currently under exploration, according to Huchim Herrera.
Additionally, significant Uxmal structures like the Grand Pyramid and the Governor’s Palace are undergoing restoration and maintenance efforts.
The archeologist highlighted that currently Uxmal is receiving approximately 350,000 visitors a year, and with these developments, added to the enhanced connectivity the Maya Train will bring; the number is expected to skyrocket to almost 1 million.
How To Get To Uxmal
The quickest way to reach the Uxmal archaeological zone is from Mérida city.
Renting a car or taking the bus from downtown Mérida both take about an hour and a half. Tour operators are also easy to find there, offering guided tours and day trips.
If you’re making the trip from Cancun, it’s a bit of a longer drive, about 4 hours. So it might be a good idea to stay overnight in Mérida. This way, you can access other archaeological sites and the city itself, which is well worth exploring.
Alternatively, there are day trips from Cancun that cover the archaeological site, provide a guide, lunch, a visit to a cenote, and more, but as you can imagine, they can be on the pricier side.
Finally, Uxmal is not a small site. So, don’t forget to pack some sunscreen, carry water, and dress comfortably for your visit to this fascinating ancient city.
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