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Traces of an Ancient City Discovered on a Pacific Island
Monday, April 15, 2024
(Phillip Parton/ANU)
NUKU’ALOFA, KINGDOM OF TONGA—ABC News Australia reports that traces of an ancient city in the form of some 10,000 mounds have been identified on the Pacific Island of Tongatapu through high-tech mapping with aerial scanners and archaeological fieldwork. “Earth structures were being constructed in Tongatapu around A.D. 300. This is 700 years earlier than previously thought,” said Phillip Parton of The Australian National University. As the settlement spread and grew, he explained, people would have interacted in new ways and done different kinds of work to support the larger population. The city’s influence eventually spread across the southwest Pacific Ocean between the thirteenth and nineteenth centuries, until it collapsed with the arrival of Europeans and unknown diseases. “This is just the beginning in terms of early Pacific settlements. There’s likely still much to be discovered,” Parton concluded. Read the original scholarly article about this research in Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. To read about another discovery from the island nation, go to "World Roundup: Tonga."
The Tuʻi Tonga Empire, or Tongan Empire, are descriptions sometimes given to Tongan expansionism and projected hegemony in Oceania which began around 950 CE, reaching its peak during the period 1200–1500.
It was centred in Tonga on the island of Tongatapu, with its capital at Muʻa. Modern researchers and cultural experts attest to widespread Tongan influence, evidence of transoceanic trade and exchange of material and non-material cultural artefacts.
Captain James Cook observed and recorded his accounts of the Tuʻi Tonga kings during his visits to the Friendly Isles of Tonga.[1][2]
History
Beginning of Tongan expansionism
As Samoa's Tui Manuʻa maritime empire began to decline, a new empire rose from the South.[3] In about 950 AD, the first Tuʻi Tonga 'Aho'eitu started to expand his rule outside of Tonga. According to leading Tongan scholar Dr. 'Okusitino Mahina, the Tongan and Samoan oral traditions indicate that the first Tuʻi Tonga was the son of their god Tangaloa.[3] As the ancestral homeland of the Tuʻi Tonga dynasty and the abode of deities such as Tagaloa ʻEitumatupuʻa, Tonga Fusifonua, and Tavatavaimanuka, the Manuʻa islands of Samoa were considered sacred by the early Tongan kings.[4] By the time of the 10th Tuʻi Tonga Momo, and his successor, Tuʻitātui, the Tuʻi Tonga Empire had grown to include much of the former domains of the Tui Fiti and Tui Manuʻa, with the Manuʻa group being the only exception, remaining under Tui Manuʻa rule. To better govern the large territory, the Tuʻi Tonga had their throne moved by the lagoon at Lapaha, Tongatapu. The influence of the Tuʻi Tonga was renowned throughout the Pacific, and many of the neighbouring islands participated in the widespread trade of resources and new ideas.[5]
Expansion (1200–1600)
Under the 10th Tuʻi Tonga, Momo and his son Tuʻitātui (11th Tuʻi Tonga) the empire was at its height of expansion, tributes for the Tuʻi Tonga were said to be exacted from all tributary chiefdoms of the empire. This tribute was known as the ʻInasi and was conducted annually at Mu'a following the harvest season when all countries that were subject to the Tuʻi Tonga must bring a gift for the gods, who was recognized as the Tuʻi Tonga.[6] Captain James Cook witnessed an Inasi ceremony in 1777.[1][2]
The finest mats of Samoa (ʻie tōga) are incorrectly translated as "Tongan mats;" the correct meaning is "treasured cloth" ("ie" = cloth, "tōga" = female goods, in opposition to "oloa" = male goods).[7] Many fine mats came into the possession of the Tongan royal families through chiefly marriages with Samoan noblewomen, such as Tohuʻia, the mother of the first Tuʻi Kanokupolu, Ngata, who came from Safata, ʻUpolu, Samoa. These mats, including the Maneafaingaa and Tasiaeafe, are considered the crown jewels of the current Tupou line[8] (which is derived matrilineally from Samoa).[9] The success of the Empire was largely based upon the Imperial Navy. The most common vessels were long-distance double-canoes fitted with triangular sails. The largest canoes of the Tongan kalia type could carry up to 100 men. The most notable of these were the Tongafuesia, ʻĀkiheuho, the Lomipeau, and the Takaʻipōmana. It should be mentioned that the Takaʻipōmana was actually a Samoan kalia; according to Queen Sālote and the Palace Records this was the Samoan double-hulled canoe that brought Tohuʻia Limapō from Sāmoa to wed the Tuʻi Haʻatakalaua.[9] The large navy allowed for Tonga to become wealthy with large amounts of trade and tribute flowing into the royal treasury.[5]
The voyaging under during the Tuʻi Tonga Empire extended as far as the Tuvaluan archipelago. The oral history of Nanumea describes the founding ancestor as being from Tonga.[10] The oral history of Niutao recalls that in the 15th century Tongan warriors were defeated in a battle on the reef of Niutao. Tongan warriors also invaded Niutao later in the 15th century and again were repelled. A third and fourth invasion of Tongan occurred in the late 16th century, again with the Tongans being defeated.[11]
During the Tongan invasions of the Wallis and Futuna islands in the 15th and 16th centuries, the islands defended themselves with varying levels of resistance, but also accepted varying degrees of assimilation. Futuna retained more of its pre-Tongan cultural features, while Wallis (Uvea) underwent greater fundamental changes in its society, language, and culture.[12]
Decline of Tuʻi Tonga and two new dynasties
The Tuʻi Tonga decline began due to numerous wars and internal pressure. In the 13th or 14th centuries, the Samoans had expelled the Tongans from their lands after Tuʻi Tonga Talakaifaiki was defeated in battle by the brothers Tuna, Fata, and Savea, progenitors of the Malietoa family. In response, the falefā was created as political advisors to the Empire. The falefā officials were initially successful in maintaining some hegemony over other subjected islands but increased dissatisfaction led to the assassination of several rulers in succession. The most notable were, Havea I (19th TT), Havea II (22nd TT), and Takalaua (23rd TT), who were all known for their tyrannical rule. In AD 1535, Takalaua was assassinated by two foreigners while swimming in the lagoon of Muʻa. His successor, Kauʻulufonua I pursued the killers all the way to ʻUvea, where he killed them.[13]
Because of so many assassination attempts on the Tuʻi Tonga, Kauʻulufonua established a new dynasty called the Ha'a Takalaua in honour of his father and gave his brother, Moʻungamotuʻa, the title of Tuʻi Haʻatakalaua. This new dynasty was to deal with the everyday decisions of the empire, while the position of Tuʻi Tonga was to be the nation's spiritual leader, though he still controlled the final say in the life or death of his people. The Tuʻi Tonga Empire at this period becomes Samoan in orientation as the Tuʻi Tonga kings themselves became ethnic Samoans who married Samoan women and resided in Samoa.[14] Kauʻulufonua's mother was a Samoan from Manu'a,[15] Tuʻi Tonga Kauʻulufonua II and Tuʻi Tonga Puipuifatu had Samoan mothers and as they married Samoan women the succeeding Tuʻi Tonga – Vakafuhu, Tapu'osi, and 'Uluakimata – were allegedly more "Samoan" than "Tongan".[16]
Samoan influence and the rise of the Tuʻi Kanokupolu
In Samoa, the high chief of Safata, Ama Lele married Soliʻai, a daughter of the Tui Manuʻa. They produced a son Peseta, who was to become the next Ama, and a daughter, Tohuʻia Limapo. Herewith contains the connection to the Tongan royal lineage through Tohuʻia Limapo. Limapo travelled to Tonga with her father Ama Lele, at the express request of the 6th Tuʻi Haʻatakalaua of Tonga, to marry Ama Lele's daughter Limapo. Limapo travelled with a large wedding party, which consisted of the Ama family and the Safata warriors under the charge of Ama Lele.
The product of this marriage was Ngata. In 1610, the 6th Tuʻi Haʻa Takalaua, Moʻungatonga, created the position of Tuʻi Kanokupolu for the half-Samoan Ngata which divided regional rule between them, though as time went on the Tu’i Kanokupolu's power became more and more dominant over Tonga. This title granted Ngata considerable power and provided a strong foundation for his new title of Tuʻi Kanokupolu, (translated as the "Heart of Upolu", a direct homage to his mother's heritage. The Tuʻi Kanokupolu dynasty oversaw the importation and institution of many Samoan policies and titles and according to Tongan scholars, this "Samoanized" form of government and custom continues today in the modern Kingdom of Tonga.[17] Things continued in this manner afterward. The first Europeans arrived in 1616, when the Dutch explorers Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire spotted Tongans in a canoe off the coast of Niuatoputapu,[18] followed by Abel Tasman who passed by the islands on 20 January 1643.[19] These visits were brief, however, and did not significantly change the islands.[18][19]
The dividing line between the two moieties was the old coastal road named Hala Fonua moa (dry land road). Modern chiefs who derive their authority from the Tuʻi Tonga are still named the Kau Hala ʻUta (inland road people), while those from the Tuʻi Kanokupolu are known as the Kau Hala Lalo (low road people). Concerning the Tuʻi Haʻatakalaua supporters: when this division arose, in the 15th century, they were of course the Kauhalalalo. But when the Tuʻi Kanokupolu had overtaken them they shifted their allegiance to the Kauhalaʻuta.[citation needed]
Modern scholarship
Modern archeology, anthropology, and linguistic studies confirm widespread Tongan cultural influence ranging widely[20][21] through East ʻUvea, Rotuma, Futuna, Samoa, and Niue, parts of Micronesia (Kiribati and Pohnpei), Vanuatu, and New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands,[22] and while some academics prefer the term "maritime chiefdom",[23] others argue that, while very different from examples elsewhere, "empire" is probably the most convenient term."[24]
The Tuʻi Manuʻa Confederacy, or Samoan Empire, are descriptions sometimes given to Samoan expansionism and projected hegemony in Oceania which began with the founding of the Tui Manu'a Title, Traditional oral literature of Samoa and Manu'a talks of a widespread Polynesian network or confederacy (or "empire").[1][2][3]
The Tui Manu'a is the oldest title of Ancient Samoa. Tui Manu’a conquered nearby islands such as Fiji, Cook Island, Tuvalu, and Tonga for centuries. According to Samoan and Tongan oral histories, the first Tui Manu'a was a direct descendant of the Samoan supreme god, Tagaloa. In Samoan lore, the islands of Manu'a (Ofu, Olosega, and Ta'u) are always the first lands to be created or drawn from the sea; consequently the Tui Manu'a is the first human ruler mentioned. This "senior" ranking of the Tui Manu'a title continues to be esteemed and acknowledged by Samoans despite the fact that the title itself has not been occupied since the American takeover in the early 20th century.[4]
Traditional oral literature of Samoa and Tonga speaks of a widespread Polynesian network or confederacy (or "empire") that was prehistorically ruled by the successive Tui Manu'a dynasties. Manu'an genealogies and religious oral literature also suggest that the Tui Manu'a had long been one of the most prestigious and powerful paramounts of the Pacific and the first pre-eminent ruler of all Samoa. Oral history suggests that the Tui Manu'a kings governed a confederacy of far-flung islands which included Fiji, Tonga[1][2][3] as well as smaller western Pacific chiefdoms and Polynesian outliers such as Uvea, Futuna, Tokelau, and Tuvalu. Commerce and exchange routes between the western Polynesian societies is well documented and it is speculated that the Tui Manu'a dynasty grew through its success in obtaining control over the oceanic trade of currency goods such as finely woven ceremonial mats, whale ivory "tabua", obsidian and basalt tools, chiefly red feathers, and seashells reserved for royalty (such as polished nautilus and the egg cowry).
Eventually, the maritime empire began to decline and a new empire rose from the South.[5] In 950 AD, the first Tu'i Tonga'Aho'eitu started to expand his rule outside of Tonga. Samoa's Savaii, Upolu and Tutuila islands were to eventually succumb to Tongan rule, and would remain part of the empire for almost 400 years. However, as the ancestral homeland of the Tu'i Tonga dynasty and the abode of deities such as Tagaloa 'Eitumatupu'a, Tonga Fusifonua, and Tavatavaimanuka, the Manu'a islands of Samoa were considered sacred by the early Tongan kings and thus were never occupied by the Tongans, allowing for it to remain under Tui Manu'a rule.[6]
By the time of the tenth Tu’i Tonga Momo, and his successor, Tuʻitātui, the Tu'i Tonga's empire had grown to include much of the former domains of the Tui Fiti and Tui Manu'a. The expulsion of the Tongans in the 13th century from neighbouring Upolu and Savaii would not lead to the islands returning to Tui Manu'a but to the rise of a new dominant polity in the western isles: the Malietoa, whose feats in liberating Samoa from the Tongan occupants led to the establishment of a new political order in Upolu and Savaii which remained unchallenged for nearly 300 years. Although the Tui Manu'a would never again regain rulership of the surrounding islands, it is permanently held in high esteem as the progenitor of the great Samoan and Tongan lineages.[7]
Colonization and the "Abolition" of the Tui Manu'a title[edit]
The Manu'a islands were grouped with Tutuila and Aunu'u as the United States possession now called American Samoa. The presidency of the United States, and the military authorities of the US Navy, supplanted the native administrative role of the Tui Manu'a, through the arrests of chiefs of the Tui Manu'a and two trials of the Tui Manu'a, one on an American warship off the coast of Ta'u, called the "Trial of the Ipu".[8] On 6 July 1904 Tui Manu'a Elisala officially ceded the islands of Manu'a to the United States through the signing of the Treaty of Cession of Manu'a. He was relegated the office of Governor of Manu'a for the term of life and the understanding that the Tui Manu'a title would follow him to the grave. He died on 2 July 1909.
After a fifteen-year break, the office was revived in 1924 when Chris Young, a member of the Anoalo clan of the Tui Manu'a family and the brother of Tui Manu'a Matelita who reigned between 1890 and 1895, was named Tui Manu'a by the general assembly of the Faletolu and Anoalo. American officials were worried that the Manu'ans were restoring a "king" who would cause trouble for the administration. Governor Edward Stanley Kellogg opposed the bestowal and had the new Tui Manu'a brought to Tutuila where he was prevented from exercising the powers of his office. The Governor did not recognise the title on the basis that a monarchy was incompatible within the framework of the Constitution of the United States, stating that the previous Tui Manu'a had pledged under duress to be the last person to hold the title.
Ancient civilization tunnels discovered in Nebraska The untold story
Robber's Cave: There is a naturally formed area in Robber's Cave in Lincoln, Nebraska, that was likely used by Native Americans before alteration in the late 1800's. The cave, which extends 5,600 feet, was used by Native Americans, pioneers, and even served as the city's first brewery. It was sealed for decades but has recently reopened for tours https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/r... Paleoburrows The paleoburrows are a network of underground passages that were dug by prehistoric animals, most likely giant ground sloths. These creatures were about the size of elephants and had long claws that they used to excavate the soil. The paleoburrows are estimated to be between two million and 10,000 years old, and they range from four feet to 65 feet in width and length. Some of them are lined with claw marks, indicating the direction and effort of the digging. The paleoburrows are found in several locations in southern Brazil, but also in Nebraska, where they were discovered by geologist Heinrich Frank in 2010. It is possible that some of the paleoburrows in Nebraska were reused by Native Americans after the extinction of the giant sloths. According to Wikipedia, some paleoburrows in Brazil were used as temporary shelters and for ritual purposes by indigenous human populations. In some of them, researchers found stone tools, ceramic artifacts, human burials, and inscriptions engraved on the walls. Therefore, it is unclear if the Native Americans in Nebraska had any connection to the paleoburrows or the ancient animals that created them. 4. The Scottsbluff Tunnel The Scottsbluff Tunnel is a natural formation that was created by the erosion of the North Platte River. The tunnel is located near the Scotts Bluff National Monument, which is a landmark of the Oregon Trail. The tunnel is about 20 feet high and 50 feet long, and it offers a scenic view of the river and the surrounding landscape. The tunnel is also a site of historical and cultural significance, as it was used by Native Americans, fur traders, pioneers, and soldiers. We are particularly interested in the Paleoburrows and the Scottsbluff tunnels. These tunnels have folklore, stories, and possible ancient ancestry to the Native American cultures from thousands of years ago. Some sources:
(Phillip Parton/ANU)
Islands within the sphere of influence of the Tongan Empire
